Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Economics - Essay Example attempted to obtain data for analysis through qualitative research method whilst attempting to use various theoretical concepts. Netting et al. on the other hand used purely qualitative research methodology by applying grounded theory in order to obtain and analyze relevant data. C. Propose at least one dependent variable and four independent variables for your study (you will use these for the Written Assignment in this module). How would you measure them? (e.g. ordinal, interval, ratio scales)? D. In your writing assignment for this module you will describe the research methodology to be used in your paper. This section will spell out the qualitative and/or quantitative methodology you would propose using as well as any sampling. In this posting, answer the following questions (the answers to which you will also document in your assignment): While carrying out research on chosen topic with questionnaire as data collection instruments, it would be advisable to obtain information on the participants’ background as well as general information such as gender and age (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010). Other personal information including name of the participants will be avoided in conducting the research. In addition, the questionnaire will have multiple choice and long structured questions. The appropriate sample size will depend on the population under investigation (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010). In any case, the sample size selected should proportionately represent the population under study. If interviews were to be used in collecting information, general questions that doe not touch on individual’s personal information should be asked (Leedy and Ormrod, 2010). Such questions should be directly linked to the subject or topic of research. Case studies are usually effective in circumstances where there are no adequate data obtained or derived from various data collection tools. In this case, the employed case studies will provide

Impact of Globalisation on Africa Essay Example for Free

Impact of Globalisation on Africa Essay This course will examine the critical and rapidly changing role of the state at the beginning of a new millennium as a result of internal and external factors, paying special attention to the state as a central player in ensuring the provision of public services, as well as facing the new challenges emerging around the world. It will enable students to: †¢ assess the impact of global economic liberalisation and information dissemination on governments and their constituents; †¢ engage in specific analyses of the changing role of the state, the different actors and stake-holders involved, the mechanisms of governance at different levels; and the emerging frustrations and violence. †¢ identify the capacities of and constraints facing governance processes; †¢ critique the manner in which reforms undertaken by governments impact social, cultural and economic development; and †¢ analyse the challenges faced by governance with regard to democratisation; To accomplish this, the course is divided into three thematic areas: 1. The State and the People (internal factors): Under this first part of the course, students will identify the basic components of state-craft, the different actors who come into play in decision making, the relative importance of each over the course of history, the constants in different geographic contexts, etc. With the advent of fresh economic, social, and environmental challenges, there is a strong sense among governments that their scope for autonomous public action is being reduced by the forces of globalisation and the consequent growth of inter-dependence among states. Sound governance in the public sector is a critical factor for continued progress. A determined effort is thus required by governments in refocussing the capacities of the public sector to meet the emerging challenges, and to grasp the opportunities thrown up by the global trends in a new millennium. 2. The State and Globalization (external factors): Under this second part, students will review the process of rapidly increasing globalization, and its impact on the role of the state, the process of increasing inter-connectedness between societies such that events in one part of the world have increasing effects on people and societies far away. Economically, transnational flows of commodities and production factors, such as capital and labour, are being accelerated. Politically, the sovereignty of nation states is being undermined, and certain kinds of supra-national authorities are being enhanced. Socio-culturally, contacts between peoples in different parts of the world have become easier, enhancing the advent of a global culture and cultural homogenisation. The effect of the integration of markets, new information technology, the erosion of sovereignty, the growing role of non-state actors, and sub-national groups, and an increasing inter-dependence among states, has resulted in the emergence of a global community, global issues, and global actions. Students will analyse the changes required in the functions of the state so that it can effectively mitigate the impact of globalization to ensure sustainable development, and national security. 3. Reconstructing the State (mechanisms of reform): Under this third part, students will review the need for recasting the roles of the institutions of the state, as well as the normal interaction between the various stakeholders – the state, the private sector and the civil society. They will analyse and debate on how national governance institutions can be reconstructed and retooled in different contexts within a climate of privatisation, participation, and decentralisation, how local governance can be promoted, how rule of law and regulatory frameworks can be established through responsible governance, and how democratic space can be created and maintained. This includes engaging civil society and the private sector in a dynamic partnership to improve the quality of developmental services, enhance social responsibilities, and ensure the broadest participation of citizens in civic life. The task o f the state is to take advantage of the forces of globalisation in providing a secure and stable domestic environment. The course will also analyse the manner in which the state can promote the participation of citizens in decision-making, enforce impartial legal frameworks, build transparency and promote accountability and equity, design policies on consensus, and provide strategic vision to overcome the challenges of mitigating the negative impacts of the global economy, transnational bodies, international law, powers and power blocs, and sub-national fringe groups. READINGS While required readings will consist of the following texts which will be placed on reserve in the Library, additional articles for each lesson may also be made available either over email or in hard copy. Some of these articles are cited in the various lesson descriptions below. Recommended Texts: †¢ Globalisation, Human Development Report 1999, UNDP, available for free download at : http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/1999/en/ †¢ Reinventing Government, David Osborne, 1992. †¢ Reconceptualising Governance, Discussion Paper 2, UNDP, January 1997, available for free download at : http://magnet.undp.org/Docs/!UN98-21.PDF/Recon.htm †¢ The Third Wave, by Samuel Huntington, published by the University of Oklahoma Press. †¢ Development as Freedom, by Amartya Sen, published by Random House Anchor Books. †¢ The World Turned Upside Down? Globalization and the Future of the State, by Berry Jones, published by St. Martins Press. †¢ Globalisation and its Discontents, by Joseph Stiglitz, published by W W Norton and Company. †¢ The Lexus and the Olive Tree, by Thomas Friedman, published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Other General Texts: †¢ Globalisation and the State, World Public Sector Report 2001, United Nations †¢ Civil Society and Political Theory, Arato and Cohen, MIT Press, Cambridge. †¢ Democratic Governance, March and Olsen, New York Free Press. †¢ Globalization and the Nation-State, Holton, London: MacMillan. 2 †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy, Strange, Cambridge University Press. Marc Williams (1996), â€Å"Rethinking Sovereignty†, Chapter 8, Elenore Kafman and Gillian Youngs (Eds.), Globalization: Theory and Practice, London: Pinter Globalization: Theory and Practice, edited by Youngs, London: Pinter The Twilight of Sovereignty: How the Information Revolution Is Transforming Our World. Wriston, New York: Charles Scribner. Governance in the Twenty-first Century , Rosenau in Global Governance, Vol. 1, No. I (Winter 1995) Globalisation, State Sovereignity, and the Endless Accumulation of Capital. Arrighi. A new version of a paper presented at the ‘States and Sovereignity in the World Economy’ conference, University of California, Irvine, 21-23 Feb. 1997. What Future for the State?, Strange, Daedalus Vol 124, (Spring 1995), 56. The Defective State, Strange, Daedalus Vol 124, Number 2, Spring 1995. The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy, Strange, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1996 Governance and Politics in Africa, Goran and Bratton, Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc. Colorado, USA. Institutions , institutional change and economic performance. North, Cambridge University Press. Making democracy work, Putnam, Leonardi, and Nanette, Princeton: Princeton University Press. CLASS POLICIES Class Participation: Class participation is essential in this course, and therefore, timely and regular class attendance is mandatory. Class attendance will be marked at the very beginning of each class. Attendance will be graded. Except for serious emergencies, and medical reasons, which must be brought to notice immediately over email, absences or late arrival will not be â€Å"excused†. It should be clearly noted that almost one-third of the Final Grade is dependant on attendance and punctuality. Drafting: Particular emphasis will be placed in this class on building up an ability to draft assignments and papers in a grammatically correct and logical manner, in presentations that can carry weight and conviction with the reader. The same will hold true of oral presentations in class. Email: Because of the importance attached to email and web pages, all students must have proper email accounts, and must check them regularly every day. (All email addresses will be collected in the first class). Students should also maintain a group address (Listserv) of all classmates, including the Professor, so that messages of common interest can be circulated to all. Reference Formula: All email correspondence MUST contain the following four-part Reference Formula in FOUR places, namely, (a) as the only â€Å"subject† of the email; (b) as the only first line of the text of the email; (c) as part of the â€Å"header† of any attached assignment, and (d) as the â€Å"filename† of the attachment: (initials of university)-(course symbol)-(initials of student)-(assignment number) 3 Example of the four-part Reference Formula: NYU-G-XXX-A# (where NYU stands for New York University, G stands for Globalisation, XXX are the student’s initials in capital letters, and A# is the assignment number). Format of assignments: Assignments will normally be submitted in hard copies, and must be saved in Microsoft Word (or WordPerfect) format exclusively. They should be saved with the same filename as the â€Å"Reference Formula† above, so that no confusion is ever created. Web-Sites: Each student will be encouraged to maintain a personal web-page, which will be graded. (Some tips on the quickest means to establish student web-sites will be discussed in the first class). In addition, a Class Web-Page may also be maintained as a group project. Each student will have to provide a personal â€Å"thumbnail† picture and a few lines of descriptive text for this Class Web-Page. These thumbnails have to be provided within the first two weeks of class. Other material on the class web-page will include summaries of class notes, and links to the personal web pages of each student reflecting their respective assignments. Assignments: Assignments will include : (a) One Mid-Term Paper (4-6 pages, single space, Garamond 12 or 14 pt. font, or equivalent) to be prepared and submitted by the 7th week of class. (b) One Final Paper (14-16 pages, single space, Garamond 12-14 pt. font, or equivalent) to be prepared and submitted by the 12th week of class. (c) Class Notes to be prepared each week by designated students working separately or in couples for each of the class sessions. (d) Oral presentations, supported by Summaries, on some of the essential texts (note: The summary of the presentation MUST be circulated to all students and to the professor via email a full 24 hours before the presentation). Class Notes: The objective is to maintain a complete record of the notes from each class on the home-page. The assigned group (which will always be different from the group preparing the presentations) will be responsible for preparation of the class notes. Class notes MUST be written within 24 hours after the class, and then circulated immediately via email to all. Class notes should not be longer then one page and should contain the following 1. The gist of the topics discussed in class. 2. The lessons learned News: The daily reading of at least one leading American newspaper (New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post, etc), one major foreign newspaper or weekly (London Guardian, Economist, etc), and one major American quarterly (Foreign Report) is required. All are available over the Internet. GRADING POLICY Grading Notes: In judging the quality of all assignments, the total grade for each of these will be divided into three portions, one-third for the quality and formatting of the presentation, one-third for the factual accuracy of research, and one-third for the strength and persuasiveness of the opinions expressed. Extra weight will be given for any visible improvement of work manifested over the semester. 4 Grading values: A+ (98-100) A (94-97) A-(90-93) B+ (88-89) B (84-87) B-(80-83) C+ (78-79) C (74-77) C-(70-73) D (60-69) F (59-less) Grading Break-up: Attendance and participation Web-page maintenance Assignments (oral and written) Final or Term Paper SCHEDULE OF LECTURES 30% 10 % 30 % 30 % SESSION 1 : INTRODUCTION Class policies and ground rules regarding, drafting techniques, web-sites, email addresses, oral book presentations, etc., and the road map of the semester will be discussed in detail. SESSION 2 : THE ROLE OF THE STATE : RIGHTS, DUTIES AND OBLIGATIONS This session reviews the definitions of the state, including the institutions of the legislature, the judiciary, electoral bodies as they have traditionally been conceptualised. What are the duties of the state to the public? What levels of government carry out what duties? How does legislature respond to the needs of the state, its duties and obligations? Governments are established to respond to the needs of their populations? What are these needs? How are they defined? What right do the people have to demand them? How do they make their concerns known? And in turn do they have duties to fulfill in their capacities as private citizens that contribute to the smooth functioning of their governments? What is the role of citizenry in good governance and in the effective functioning of the state? Book Presentation: Globalisation, Human Development Report 1999, UNDP Other discussion Papers: Public Sector Management, Governance and Sustainable Human Development. Discussion Paper 1. UNDP, BDP/MDGD. January 1995, Available at: http://magnet.undp.org/Docs/!UN9821.PDF/Psm.htm The Challenge to the South, The Report of the South Commission, 1992. Available through http://www.southcentre.org/ The Rise of the Brand State, Peter van Ham, Foreign Affairs, Sep-Oct 2001 SESSION 3 : UNDERSTANDING GLOBALISATION This session will attempt to define the parameters of the forces of globalisation in their historical and functional contexts. How does globalisation today differ from its earlier versions? What are the respective roles of the state and the private sector in using these  forces ? How do states, citizens, businesses, benefit from these forces ? Who gains and who loses out in the process. Book Presentation: Reinventing Government, David Osborne, 1992. Other dscussion papers: Selling Globalization The Myth of the Global Economy, by Michael Veseth Globalisation, Human Development Report 1999, UNDP, Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/1999/en/default.cfm The Clash of Globalisations, Stanley Hoffman, Foreign Affairs, Jul-Aug 2002 SESSION 4 : GOVERNANCE AS A BASIC PRE-CONDITION TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Governance is a basic precondition for sustainable economic, social and political development. This lesson will look at the linkages between governance and development that is sustainable. It will review how systems of governance can effect development positively or negatively and the challenges posed to the state and society. It will also look at accountability and transparency in dealing especially with corruption, which is a major concern in most countries. Book Presentation: Reconceptualising Governance, Discussion Paper 2, UNDP, January 1997 Other discussion Papers: Governance for Sustainable Development, a UNDP Policy Document, 1997, Available at: http://magnet.undp.org/policy/default.htm Corruption and Good Governance. Discussion Paper 3. UNDP, BDP/MDGD. July 1997 Available at: http://magnet.undp.org/ under: Discussion Papers Series. SESSION 5 : THE INTEGRATION OF MARKETS, TECHNOLOGY AND INFORMATION This lesson reviews the impact of globalization on nations and countries all over the world. It examines the development of new technologies, and rapid information communications that are breaking down barriers of time and distance. It looks at the effect of unprecedented integration of trade and financial transactions through electronic means and the massive diffusion of information through Internet and satellites. It examines the effect of globalization on the sovereignty of the state and the need for a change in its role. Book Presentation: The Third Wave, by Samuel Huntington, published by the University of Oklahoma Press. Other discussion Papers: Globalization and the Nation-State, by Robert J. Holton, London: MacMillan, Philip G. Cerny (1996), â€Å"What Next for the State?†, Chapter 9, Elonore Kafman and Gillian Youngs (Eds.), Globalization: Theory and Practice, London: Pinter. The Knowledge Gap, Avinesh Persaud, Foreign Affairs, Mar-Apr 2001 SESSION 6 : THE EROSION OF SOVEREIGNTY The process of globalisation is undermining the sovereignty of nation states and will lead to the eventual disintegration of the sovereign states system in international politics. The sovereignty of nations is being undermined by multiple sources: technology, civil society, global consensus on issues such as human rights, democracy and governance. However, sovereign states are still the basic constituents of the international society. This lesson will look at the effect of globalization on the sovereignty of the state and review policies that need to be adopted to meet the requirements of the international community. Book Presentation: Development as Freedom, by Amartya Sen, published by Random House Anchor Books. Other discussion Papers: Philip G. Cerny (1996), â€Å"What Next for the State?†, Chapter 9, Elonore Kafman and Globalization: Theory and Practice, by Gillian Youngs (Eds.), London: Pinter, The Twilight of Sovereignty: How the Information Revolution Is Transforming Our World, by Wriston, Walter, New York: Charles Scribner, Will the Nation State survive Globalisation, Martin Wolf, Foreign Affairs, Jan-Feb 2001 SESSION 7 : THE GROWING ROLE OF NON-STATE ACTORS The modern state is witnessing civil society, NGOs and the private sector becoming more powerful at the expense of the state. In some countries, the influence of some transnational corporations (TNCs) has become greater than that of the state. These TNCs are the most important single force creating global shifts in economic activity, and their strategies and operations are much influenced by the forces of technological change. Moreover, private investment has become a major source of funding for development activities. How can the state interact with these non-state actors gradually gaining a more prominent role? This lesson explores the different experiences and responses of nations to answer this question. Book Presentation: The World Turned Upside Down? Globalization and the Future of the State, by Berry Jones, published by St. Martins Press. Other discussion Papers: Governance in the Twenty-first Century, by Rosenau, James N. in Global Governance Vol. 1, No. I (Winter 1995) Public Sector Management, Governance and Sustainable Human Development. Discussion Paper 1. UNDP, BDP/MDGD. January 1995, Available at: http://magnet.undp.org/Docs/!UN9821.PDF/Psm.htm Assignment submission deadline for one of the following topics: 1: How is globalization affecting the poor and other disadvantaged groups in developing and developed countries. Each student can either take one country or one aspect of globalization to prepare this summary. In other words the unit of analysis could either be one issue/aspect of globalization applied to different countries, or one country through which all aspects are brought together. or 2: Critically examine the problems of the civic and corporate responsibilities of multinational corporations. Students can either choose one company, or prepare a general note to examine how private sector companies can share social and economic responsibility for the communities and groups in which they work. Such responsibilities might include, among other possibilities, support to local economic development, increasing awareness of human rights, supporting the government to fight cross border corruption, etc.. SESSION 8 : THE INCREASING INTER-DEPENDENCE AMONG STATES There is visible evidence about the emergence of a global community, global issues and global actions. Examples lie in multi-lateral organisations as in the United Nations system, and in regional institutions, as in the European Union, NAFTA, ASEAN, etc. Increasing interaction among states in tackling political, economic and financial issues, has resulted in a growing awareness that interaction at regional and global levels is essential in this globalized world. There is a need to address issues of peace, security, economic stability, poverty and health as global concerns. There is an awareness that global actions are becoming essential in effectively tackling problems which are acquiring global dimensions, for example, drugs, terrorism, global warming, crime, poverty, illiteracy, AIDS, etc. There is growing awareness also about the concept of â€Å"global public goods†. How can nations deal with this new interdependence? What is the most effective role for the state? This lesson reviews the effect of rapidly increasing globalisation in the 21st Century and its impact on national governments of the North and South. It looks at the issue of global goods, effects on the growth, distribution of incomes, availability of public services, and increasing inequities within countries and across nations and reviews the need for increased collaboration in policy, with particular emphasis on global governance. Book Presentation: Globalisation and its Discontents, by Joseph Stiglitz, published by W W Norton and Company. Other discussion Papers: Governance in the Twenty-first Century by Rosenau, James in Global Governance, Vol. 1, No. I (Winter 1995) SESSION 9 : THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALISATION AND LOCALISATION Globalization is forcing states to cede some sovereignty over global issues. The greater demand for decentralisation and citizen empowerment is also forcing states to devolve power, authority and finances to local levels. What is the role of decentralisation and how can this be distinguished from the process of devolution, and deconcentration? This lesson will look at institutional changes, experiences in decentralisation and democratic governance. Book Presentation: The Lexus and the Olive Tree, by Thomas Friedman, published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Other discussion Papers: Institutions , institutional change and economic performance, by North, Douglass, Cambridge University Press, 1990. Making democracy work, Putnam, Robert D., Robert Leonardi, and Raffaella Y. Nanette. 1993. Reconceptualising Governance. Discussion Paper 2. UNDP, BDP/MDGD. January 1997, Available at: http://magnet.undp.org/Docs/!UN98-21.PDF/Recon.htm Globalisation, Human Development Report, UNDP, Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/1999/en/default.cfm Globalisation’s Democratic Defeat, Joseph Nye, Foreign Affairs, Jul-Aug, 2001 SESSION 10 : RETOOLING NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL GOVERNANCE INSTITUTIONS. Governments and international organisations are faced at all levels with increasing globalisation, population, and growing needs. New forms and ways of government functioning are emerging. The twenty first century is marked by a focus on democratisation, and an increased emphasis on global, national and local governance. The challenge is to restructure national governance institutions to deal with the impact of globalisation and the changing circumstances as well as providing efficient and effective public services with limited funds. Other discussion Papers: The new institutionalism: Organizational factors in political life. by March, James. G., and Hohan P. Olsen.. American Political Science Review 78 (3): 734-749. SESSION 11 REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS AT THE INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL LEVELS The objectives are, ensuring society-based supremacy of laws, establishing regulatory systems to set up effective regulatory frameworks and a rights based system, ensuring equal treatment before laws protecting life, property and human dignity. How is law implemented in multijuridical states? What challenges does this present to governments? How does this affect the democratic representation of each citizen? The session will also look at overarching international juridical bodies: who designs them, who informs them, how is their mandate determined and implemented. Particular attention will be focussed on the World Bank, the IMF, and the WTO. Country cases are used to illustrate the needs of establishing policies, laws and resource priorities at the national levels to ensure equity and justice, and the upholding of rule of law, bringing security, and predictability to social, political and economic relations in the world. Other discussion Papers: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights; United Nations Available at: http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html SESSION 12: BUILDING NEW PARTNERSHIPS WITH CIVIL SOCIETY AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR What constitutes civil society? What is the most effective role of civil society organisations at the local, regional and global level? Do they and should they have well defined mandates? How can they work collaboratively with government? In addition, beginning with a review of the traditional role of the private sector in the stability of a nation-state,what are the moral, financial and legal obligations that the private sector has both to governments and to its constituents, addressing the question of the appropriate tools for regulation, if any. It examines the vital role of the private sector in good governance and in mitigating the negative effects of globalisation. Other discussion Papers: Citizens, Strengthening Global Civil Society. CIVICUS. Good Governance and Trade Policy: Are they the Key to Africa’s Global Integration and Growth?. by Francis and Yates, Alexander; World Bank. 1999, Available at: http://wwwwds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDS_IBank_Servlet?pcont=detailseid=000094946_99032505 585398 Taxes and Bribery: The Role of Wage Incentives. Besley, Timothy, and J. McLaren. Economic Journal, Vol. 103, January 1999. Final Paper submission deadline: What is the issue of the changing role and power of the nation-state in the face of globalisation. Some argue that invincible globalising forces will inevitably lead to the demise or fatal weakening of the nation-state in international politics. This kind of argument is explicitly presented in titles such as â€Å"The End of the Nation-State† (K. Ohmae, 1996) and â€Å"The Retreat of the State† (Susan Strange, 1996) Others refuse this argument and contend that nation-states will hold fast to their traditional powers and sovereignty. Examine the conflicting arguments on the relationship between globalisation and the sovereignty of the nation-state. In doing this, look into the conceptual aspects of globalisation and sovereignty first, present the different views on the subjects, and try to arrive at some conclusions as to what the conflicting arguments imply for human development. or A focused single-topic paper, either on one of the following topics, or on any other relevant topic which is cleared in advance with the Professor: (a) Corruption and Accountability. (b) Electoral Reform in Established Democracies. (c) Decentralisation and Democracy. (d) The Importance of Rule of Law and Access to Justice. (e) The Limits to the Capacity of the Public Sector. (f) The Uneven Impact of Globalisation. (g) The Erosion of Sovereignty. (h) The Role of Civil Society in the Future World. (i) The Role of Foreign Direct Investment. (j) Information Technology as a Driving Force. (k) Terrorism, causes and effects (l) Poverty and its Effects (m) New Doctrines in Law (n) Free Trade and Protectionism (o) Migration flows in a Globalised world. SESSION 13 : FINAL SUMMATION CURRENT GOOD PRACTICES Several modules of good governance exist around the world. Students will identify different models of good governance and critically analyse its components establishing the reasons for the success of the models and identifying the circumstances where these models could be used as an example of best practices. What does capacity development for governance involve? How is the capacity of a national government assessed and what are the innovative approaches required to create an enabling environment and interrelationship of groups and organisations. Other discussion Papers: Governance for Sustainable Human Development. Discussion Paper 7. UNDP, BDP/MDGD. http://magnet.undp.org/policy/default.htm January 1997, Available at: Corruption and Good Governance. Discussion Paper 3. UNDP, BDP/MDGD. July 1997, Available at: http://magnet.undp.org/ under: Discussion Papers Series. The Capacity to Govern: Report to the Club of Rome. Yehezekiel, The Commonwealth Portfolio of Current Good Practices and New Development in Public Services Management, Commonwealth Secretariat. 1996, Emerging Issues in Capacity Development, Proceedings of a Workshop. Institute on Governance, Ottawa, 1994. Spreading the Wealth, Dollar and Kraay, Foreign Affairs, Jan-Feb 2002 Is Inequality Decreasing, Galbraith and Pitt, Foreign Affairs, Jul-Aug 2002 SESSION 14 : DISCUSSION ON FINAL PAPERS This session will review the Final Papers of students before the semester ends

The Post-War Era Essay -- After WWII, 1945-1950

The Second World War concluded and the United States became the single most powerful nation in the western world. American history explains the participation of America in the international arena effectively, but when it comes to the domestic arena much is excluded. History has deprived new generations from being able to acknowledge the essential changes that took place within the United States during the Post-war era. The most common struggle during this time period was the return of American veterans to home ground. Millions of men returned to their hometowns and newly developed cities to settle down and create a family. However, these men were soldiers and pre-war students, but did not have a set place within the Post-war era society, therefore creating distress and struggle. Additionally, within the country’s boundaries over a hundred thousand Japanese-Americans were liberated from internment camps and prisons. These Japanese immigrants and descendants had been imprisoned for two years or more because of an anti-Japanese movement that took place during World War II. Generally, after the war the American society as a whole was in a shift to integrate itself to new demands, and this, as any other period of change is â€Å"interesting† (Goulden 6). In this time period of the post-war era we are able to see how identity for a new era is created. According to the Oxford American Dictionary, identity is the fact of who or what a person or something is. Thus, the identity of a person is relative to what a person finds himself able to do or be within the environment that surrounds him. Identity, which makes up a character of society, is the initial foundation to society as a whole. Since the individual is the principal foundation of so... ...that took place within the era, we would not have had a presidential election in which a women and an African-American battled for control of the American nation and its colossal power. Plainly, America rose like a phoenix from the ashes thanks to the post-war years. Works Cited Goulden, Joseph C. The Best Years 1945-1950. New York, NY: McCellan and Stewart Ld., 1976. Henthorn, Cynthia Lee. From Submarines to Suburbs: Selling a Better America, 1939- 1959. Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2006. Print. Hayden, Dolores. Redesigning the American Dream: The Future of Housing, Work, and Family life. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 1984. Kaplan, Fred. 1959. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2009. Print. Okada, John. No-No Boy. New York: University of Washington, 1978. Yates, John. Revolutionary Road. New York, NY: Vintage Contemporaries, 1989.

Idioms Denoting Parts of Body Essay

1. Introduction It is common knowledge that one of the most important functions of language is to name the world or express human thoughts through a system of concepts. They exist in association in language and make up a giant network with many interconnection and association among the various subparts. A good example of this interconnection involves metaphor. Metaphor is used in the literary or poetic language. It is also widely used in every day conversational language. It is obvious that metaphor is utilized to express ideas sensibly and vividly as it has great expressive power. It is capable of conveying more of the human feeling, emotion or attitude toward what is said rather than the non-metaphorical or direct way of expression. The more developed the society is, the more necessary the need of communication becomes; especially in the process of globalization, the communication has spread beyond the boundary of a country. Together with the development of the society in the era of integration, language has been clearly recognized as a very important tool in communication with many purposes. Language can be used to show one’s feeling, attitude, and evaluation. And through communicating, reading newspapers etc., I realize that people often use words, phrases denoting human body to show their feeling, emotion†¦ In our daily life, we can easily recognize words denoting our body parts used plentifully, not only individual words but also word combinations containing more than one human body part. Regarding to word groups denoting human body parts, their meanings are not the combination of each word’s meaning only, in some cases, their meanings are quite different from the original meaning. Learning of idioms is important, especially for the foreigner learners. Idioms correspond to a valuable vein in English language, so they need for explanation. Idioms are fixed expressions whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of its components. Learners of English must be aware that the meaning cannot be taken as a combination of words which the idiom consist of. Also behaviour of idioms in sentences is different. One cannot understand literally the meaning of an idiom. Sometimes it seems that it has no sense or it is illogical. Idioms cannot be changed; especially one cannot use related words when the idiom is concerned. Many of them cannot be used in passive form. The structure of idioms is extraordinary. That is why learners of English must know that the most important thing is not learning idioms by rote, but learning how to use them. If speaker of English knows a lot of idioms and he can use them in a right context, he will be able to communicate more easily. Idiomatic expressions are phrases which use language in a non-literal way. This is why interpretation of idioms is very hard. Idioms are group of words, phrases that meaning cannot be concluded from the individual words. Every idiom has a deeper, metaphorical meaning. Idioms are very important in life because it is impossible to speak, read, write and listen to English without knowing idiomatic expressions. Native speakers of English feel more comfortable using idiomatic phrases; however, non-native speakers can be frustrated because the true meaning of an idiom is not always clear. One should remember that idioms can be used when every speaker master a language completely. Nowadays, idioms are essential elements that enrich the language. However, one should remember that speech which is overloaded with idioms loses its originality. On the other hand, lack of idioms make that oral or written speech loses much in its expressiveness. A large number of phrases and sentences in the English language are related to body parts. Some of them are descriptive while others, elusive. Their origins are dated from Biblical times to the recent days. Each generation adds new idiomatic expressions which are connected with their culture. The meaning of idiomatic expressions is indefinable. They show that metaphors are very important in our lives and that we do not look at things in the way they are in reality, but rather we perceive them through our understanding and our experience of the world. The present thesis is an attempt at an analysis of English idioms with a body component. Its goal is to study and present the nature of idioms, their connection with culture and context. It is common knowledge that one of the most important   functions of language is to name the world or express human thoughts through a system of concepts. They exist in association in language and make up a giant network with many interconnection and association among the various subparts. A good example of this interconnection involves metaphor. Metaphor is used in the literary or poetic language. It is also widely used in every day conversational language. It is obvious that metaphor is utilized to express ideas sensibly and vividly as it has great expressive power. It is capable of conveying more of the human feeling, emotion or attitude toward what is said rather than the non-metaphorical or direct way of expression. Achilles’ heel= the only vulnerable spot in a person or thing that is otherwise strong; a serious or fatal weakness/ fault After one’s own heart = to like someone because of similar interests An eye for an eye (and a tooth for a tooth)= retaliation/ retribution in kind, a punishment that is as cruel as the crime An eye opener = a surprise; a startling or enlightening experience Armed to the teeth = heavily armed Behind one’s back = when one is not present Blue blood = having the qualities of being of noble birth Can’t put one’s finger on = can’t locate immediately, can’t find the answer Can’t see beyond the end of one’s nose = limited vision concerning decisions of the future Crocodile tears = false tears, pretended grief Face to face/ eyeball-to-eyeball = confronting each other Foul mouth = a user of profanity Hand in hand= in close association Hands are tied = restrained from acting Heart-to-heart = intimate speaking freely and seriously about a private subject I could have bitten my tongue off= sorry you said something In one ear and out the other = does not heed or pay attention It’s in your hands = it is your responsibility On the tip of one’s tongue= at the point of telling or recalling One foot in the grave = old and decrepit Over one’s dead body= against one’s strong opposition Right-hand man= chief assistant To (not) lift a finger= not to help in the slightest degree To be all ears = to listen attentively To be loose–tongued = to talk too much To be up to one’s ears = immersed in, caught in To break someone’s heart = cause great sorrow, disappoint someone To breathe down someone’s neck = to follow someone closely in pursuit, the action of a superior who is looking for something wrong or watching someone very closely To bury one’s head in the sand = to refuse to accept facts To catch one’s breath = to rest to regain normal breathing To cry on someone’s shoulder = to go to someone to talk to about a problem To foam/ froth at the mouth= to be very angry To force one’s hand = make one reveal his plans To get one’s hands on= obtain To get out of hand= become uncontrollable To get through one’s head= to understand or believe To give one’s right arm = make a big sacrifice; give something of great value To give someone a hand= help, assistance To go to one’s head= cause dizziness To have a big mouth= to talk too much To have a sharp tongue= harsh or sarcastic in speech To have an eagle eye= to have an excellent eyesight 1.1 Aim Idiomatic Phrases For the first time the term ‘phraseology’ appeared in 16th century and it meant ‘style’ or ‘vocabulary’. In 18th century it got terminological meaning such as ‘a group of word units’. At the same time in most of European languages ‘phraseology’ meant ‘empty words’. New linguistic branch ‘phraseology’ developed in 20th century, mostly in East Europe. The forerunner of phraseology was Charles. Bally, Swiss linguist. He used the term phraseology when he wrote about different types of word-groups which differ in degree of stability from free word-groups to phraseological units. The study on phraseology was developed by Russian linguists A.A. Shakhmotov and A.D. Polivanov. M. Tarasevitch (1991:448) claims that â€Å"[†¦] linguists became aware of the existence in the language of special larger-than-words units: word-groups consisting of two or more words whose combination is integrated as a un it with a specialized meaning of the whole [†¦]. Russian linguists made an attempt to study various word-groups on a scientific basis. They pointed out the need to establish a new branch of linguistics that would study unusual feature of word-groups. In linguistics, ‘phraseology’ is a term used for describing the context in which a word is used. The term also describes various structural and semantic types of phrases characterized by different degrees of idiomacity in given language. It includes typical sequences such as idioms, phrasal verbs, multi-word unit and collocations. â€Å" Phraseology – the words and phrases used in particular profession or activity or a particular way of putting words together to express something† (Macmillan English Dictionary 2007:1119) Phraseology studies compound meaning of two or more words e.g. like a knife through butter. The meaning of the phrase is different from the words used alone. Phraseology studies why such meanings come in everyday use, and what possibly are the laws governing these word combinations. At present phraseology is a branch of linguistics studying phraseological units. According to M. Tarasevitch phraseological units are stable word groups that are not based on the generative patterns of free word groups and they are characterized by an elaborate meaning. Tarasevitch claims that phraseological unit should have: * Stability of use; * Structural separateness; * Complexity of meaning and * Word-groups are not built on the generative pattern of free word-groups. Stability of use means that phraseological units are language units which are members of a language community. Phraseology is connected with culture and speech community. Structural separateness helps to distinguish praseological units from compound words. Complexity of meaning signifies the non-compositionality of phraseological units, which mean that the meaning of the whole phrase is different from the sum of literal meanings of the words. Each unit is constituted according to its own unique rule, which cannot be predicted. One of three groups of phraseological units is idioms. Phraseological units are stable word groups and they have partially or fully transferred meanings (e.g. kick the bucket). They are lexicalized word group in common use. What is an idiom? â€Å"A group of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of the individual words† (Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary 2000:672) â€Å"An expression established in the usage of a language that is peculiar to itself either in grammatical construction or in having a meaning that cannot be derived as a whole from the conjoined meanings of its elements† (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary 1993:1123) â€Å"[†¦] an idiom is a lexicalized, reproducible word group in common use, which has the syntactic stability, and may carry connotations, but whose meaning cannot be derived from the meanings of its constituents† (Cowie 2001:125) The word ‘idiom’ comes from the Greek root idio, meaning a unique signature. An idiom is an expression, a phrase or a combination of words that has a meaning that is different from a meaning of the individual words. Each language contains expressions which make no sense when they are translated literally into another language. Sometimes idiom can have literal meaning in some situation and different idiomatic meaning in another situation. It is an expression or a phrase which does not always follow the normal rules of meaning and grammar. If somebody (especially a foreigner or a person outside a given culture) does not know that some words convey a meaning that is unrelated to the individual meaning of those words, he may does not understand what someone is saying. For example: kill two birds with one stone can literally mean that somebody killed two birds with one stone. But the idiom has totally different meaning: one resolves two difficulties or matters with a one single action. Many idioms are similar to expressions in other languages, can be easy to understand and its meaning is usually obvious. For instance, black ship of the family in Poland can be easily understood because there is an identical idiom and it can be easily translated. Other idioms come from older phrases which have changed their meaning over time, for example, kick the bucket originally referred to suicide victims standing on inverted buckets, they kick them away and in this way hang themselves, but now it means simply to die. Shelley (1995) suggests that some idioms are slang. â€Å"Slang seems to mean everything that is below the standard of usage of present-day English† (Galperin 1971:96). Galperin cited a definition of slang of â€Å"Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language†: â€Å"1. Originally, the specialized vocabulary and idioms of criminals tramps, etc. The purpose of which was to disguise from outsiders the meaning of what was said; now usually called cant. 2. The specialized vocabulary and idioms of those in the same work, way of life, etc.; now usually called shoptalk, argot, jargon. â€Å" (Galperin 1971:96). According to Thomas (1995) idioms are known as clichà ©s. Clichà ©s are expressions that have been used over and over again. They are overused and common expressions. Idioms are perceived as a very interesting part of the language because they are different from simple words and phrases. They make language life and rich because they take existing words and combine them with a new sense and create totally new expressions. â€Å"[†¦] language is a living thing [†¦]. Living things grow and change, so does language.† (Seidl and McMordie 1988:11) English language being flexible enriches its vocabulary with the words invented by language speakers, which makes English more colourful with new idiomatic expressions. Since idioms have unpredictable meaning, structure and collocations, they are linguistic curiosities. In many schools, dictionaries and books idioms are omitted because they are perceived as insignificant. They are rarely used in classrooms. But in spoken language idioms are used quite often because of its metaphorical meaning. According to Seidl and McMordie (1988) the attitude to language is still changing. It is observed in some parts of grammar (case, number and tense), and in style. Some words which were deemed as slang in the past now are considered informal or colloquial. Idioms are not any longer colloquial expressions. They appear in formal style, in poetry and in the language of the Bible. Idioms and culture â€Å"By culture we understand the ability of members of speech community to orientate themselves with respect to social, moral, political and so on values in their empirical and mental experience. Cultural categories [†¦] are conceptualized in the subconscious knowledge of standards, stereotypes, mythologies, rituals, general habits and other cultural patterns†. (Cowie 2001:57) The term idiom refers to a group of words which are usually confusing to people who are not familiar with the language. Nevertheless, many phrases or expressions from natural language are in fact idioms or have idiomatic origin and they have been assimilated into the language. Idioms are often colloquial metaphors. They often combine in their semantics more than one type of cultural information. It means that they require some foundational knowledge, information and experience which are used only within a culture where groups must have common reference. As cultures are localized around some area, idioms are not useful for communication outside of that local context. But there are some idioms that can be more universally used than others, they can be easily translated and their metaphorical meaning can be more easily deduced. Those common idioms have deep roots in many languages, they can be translated in other languages and tend to become international. Idioms are an essential part of English style language study. One cannot say that he know English history, culture and society without understanding the meaning and the roots of English idioms. Each generation has added its new non-literal expressions which are defined by the values, beliefs, traditions, customs and events of the times. If you master idioms you will be on your path to better understanding English culture, customs, society and lifestyle of English people. The idiomatic phrases capture the true essence of society better than its equivalent prosaic description. When one uses idioms among English friends and even business associates, he can create emotional bands that bring him closer to their culture. Mastery of idioms can lead to better understanding of people. Often background information on the origin or popular usage of idioms provides important insight into culture. Different aspects of an idiom Seidl and McMordie (1988) said that idioms are not only colloquial expressions, but they also appear in formal style and in poetry. Idioms often occur in journalism, radio and magazines to make information, stories and articles more interesting. However, idioms are often connected with informal language. The construction of an idiom is strict and for one it can be odd (e.g. not by a long chalk). Sometimes the construction seems to be illogical (e.g. for two pins). This is why learning idioms is not only very difficult task but also very exciting and intriguing. People who do not know certain idioms cannot easily understand the others. Such a phrase would not make sense and one cannot deduce what is actual meaning of the expression. These features causes that idioms have to be learnt as a whole expressions without any changes. Sometimes idioms have alternative forms without any change in their meaning (e.g. to drop a brick and put one’s foot in it mean to say something tactlessly or blue-eyed boy and golden boy – a favoured person). In some cases several verbs can be used in one idiom and the meaning is the same, but sometimes there are slight changes in meaning connected with the verb which it substitutes (e.g. keep/bear someone in mind, come/get to/reach the point). An idiom is natural to native speakers of the language and only people who are possess English very good can use idiomatic expressions in their speech. Idioms have different structures and combinations. They can be short or long, they contain various parts of speech and they are unpredictable, but sometimes one may guess meaning from the context, when the idiom is used in a particular situation. Foreigners know the meaning of the idiom when it is related to the mother tongue of the speaker (e.g. be in seven heaven in Polish its mean być w sià ³dmym niebie). Some idioms are so difficult that one cannot guess the meaning from the context correctly. It is difficult to learn them. Idioms can change their meaning during period of time or simple phrase can transform into idiom and get deeper meaning as it was with kick the bucket. Learners of foreign language have to learn idioms as a single item with their meaning. It is essential to master the rules of their use in sentences. They are strict in their structure and they do not allow the word order to change. A learner must know how to use an idiom in the correct way. Idioms are not separate part of language, but they are very important part of lexicon. Languages contain a large number of idioms and sometimes native speakers use them in the unconscious way. There are many problems with idioms. The main problem is that it is not usually possible to translate them literally. There are exceptions, for instance, take the bull by the horns can be translated literally into Polish as wziąć byka za rogi, which has the same meaning. Mostly, the use of normal rules in order to translate idioms will result in illogical phrases. Idioms have to be treated as single units in translation. There are idioms which are ‘frozen’. It means that an idiom appears in the same form and in the same order (e.g. for good – ‘forever’). But, there is problem with idioms which change the form of the verb, which varies according to tense, person and number. For example, kick the bucket (‘to die’) one gets she kicks/kicked/will kick the bucket. Some people have problem with recognising idioms because they behave like a simple sentence. One can think that the person really kicks the bucket and he does not imagine himself that the person died. The interpretation of idioms for one can be surprising. It is better to recognise idioms which have ‘frozen forms’. Idioms pragmatics and context â€Å"Pragmatics – the study of the way in which language is used to express what somebody really means in particular situations, especially when the actual words used may appear to mean something different.† (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English 2000:1031). Pragmatics is involved with the comprehension process. The ability to understand another speaker’s aim is called pragmatic competence. It is a linguistic study of the way in which people use language to achieve different goals. Suppose a person wanted to ask someone else to reveal a secret. These could be achieved in the different ways. The person could simply say ‘do not tell a secret, please’ which is direct and with clear meaning. Alternatively the person could say ‘do not spill the beans’, which implies a similar meaning but is indirect and therefore requires pragmatic competence. Idioms play very important role in those studies. Because idioms have general meaning they are rather used to express attitude then give specific information. They are used to express approval or disapproval and admiration or criticism. According to Collins Coubild Dictionary of Idioms (1995) idioms sometimes have connotations and pragmatic meaning which are not always obvious to people who do not know the meaning and then the meaning of the expression can be missed. It may happen that somebody can use an idiom and do not realize that it can be interpreted as critical or disapproving. It can cause wrong reaction of the person they are talking to. Pragmatics is one of the most challenging aspects for language learners to comprehend, and can be learned by experience. The interpretation of what the speaker wanted to say using particular words is often influenced by factors such as listener’s assumption or the context. In pragmatics two contexts can be distinguished: linguistic context (is the set of words that surround the lexical item) and physical context (is the location of given words, the situation in which the word is used, as well as timing, all of them lead to proper understanding of the words). 1.2. Practical Value When we use idioms? According to Seild and McMordie (1988) one should know in which situations it is correct to use idiom and weather an idiom can be used in a formal or an informal situation. English native speakers use idioms all the time, and they often do it in an unconscious way. This means that the communication with them can be very difficult. They use idioms to express something that other words do not express as clearly or as cleverly. Of course choice of words depends on the person who is speaking, on the situation and the place. If people are friends and they are talking in private there is no reason to avoid using idioms, slang or jargon. But, if in the same situation one of speakers is foreigner they should not use idioms until this person will master the language completely. Learning idioms cause a lot of troubles to English learners because they do not know the culture and history behind the idioms. That is way they often use idioms inappropriately. Learners use idiomatic expressions carefully because they are afraid of using them incorrectly. In formal situations, it means when one is talking with a stranger or speaks publicly than one should shun idioms. Using idioms one should know whether an idiom is appropriate in certain situation. When idioms are used judiciously, they can even improve the atmosphere of one’s formal writing and provide more interesting descriptions. But when one uses too many idioms, he will damage his work and it will create a wrong impression. Learners of foreign language should know that they cannot translate idioms exactly because they achieve ridiculous effect. The results of foreigner’s translation may be bewildering to the English native speaker. Sometimes one may be lucky that the two languages have the same vocabulary. It is connected with close relation between language and culture. Idioms can be learnt only by listening to native speakers or reading texts which contains idioms. â€Å"Mastery of idioms comes only slowly, through careful study and observation, through practice and experience.† (Seidl and McMordie 1978:8) Idioms with a body part component Many English idioms are related to external and internal organs of the human body. Body parts idioms contain following aspects: ââ€"  body parts which are connected with senses ââ€"  internal organs ââ€"  limbs and limbs’ elements ââ€"  other body parts Body idioms connected with senses Ear Idioms Ear – is an organ of hearing. It is a part of human auditory system and it is used to listen to the sounds. Ear idioms have both positive and negative meaning. Half of them are positively loaded; the other part is negatively loaded. Eye idioms Eye – is an organ of vision. According to Macmillan dictionary (2007) eye is one of two body parts used for seeing. Most of the idioms are positively loaded. Nose idioms Nose – it is a part of people’s face that is used for smelling and breathing. Half of nose idioms have a positive meaning the other half have a negative meaning. Skin idioms According to Mcmillan English dictionary (2007) skin is the external layer of human’s and animal’s body. Skin also enables feeling. Body idioms connected with limbs and limbs’ elements Arm idioms Arm – is an upper limb of human body with your hands at the end. Six arm idioms have a positive meaning, one is rather neutral and the others have a negative meaning. Shoulder idioms Shoulder – it is one of two parts of the body between one’s neck and the top of one’s arms. Hand idioms In dictionaries there are many different uses of word ‘hand’. As a body part ‘hand’ is at the end of each arm that people use for picking up and holding things, but it is also used for moving and touching things. Hand provides a good source for metonymic extensions and hand-based idioms convey both positive and negative meanings. That said, a hand that takes does not give, your hand and not the charity of others, someone’s hand outruns his/her tongue (speech), someone’s hand and strike, someone with a long hand, someone’s hand on his/her heart, someone with an empty hand, someone with a loose hand, someone with a short hand, someone with a dry hand, someone dug his/her grave by hand, someone withdrew his/her hand from someone/ something, soften your hand (imperative), as left by your hand, no power in hand, putting one’s hand in another’s throat and nobody hit him/her on the hand are all instances of hand based idioms that express negative meanings. Finger idioms Fingers are the long, thin parts at the end of human’s hands. Half of the finger idioms have a positive meaning and the other part is negative. Leg idioms Leg – is a lower limb of human body with your foot at the end. Bigger parts of leg idioms have negative meaning (5), one is neutral and the rest are positive. Foot idioms Foot – the part of your body that is at the end of the leg on which a human or an animal stands. Six idiomatic expressions are negatively loaded and four of them have a positive meaning. Toe idioms Toe is the one of the individual parts at the end of human’s foot. Only one idiom (be/keep on one’s toes) have a positive meaning, one is neutral (from top to toes) and the rest are negatively loaded. Internal idioms Heart idioms Heart is the organ in human’s chest that makes blood flow around the body. The term refers to our feelings and emotions in reference to people’s character. Heart is considered as the most important and influential part of human body. It is the place where people’s deepest emotions come from. It is believed that heart controls emotions and it is used to talk about love and happiness. This is why, the most of idioms are positively loaded. 80% of heart idioms contain the word ‘heart’ in Polish and 20% of idioms are not related to heart or feelings. Bone idioms Bone is one of the hard parts that form a fame inside the human’s or animal’s body. Bone function is to move and protect the internal organs of the body. Bones create the skeleton. This is why they used to represent death. Nowadays, bone idioms are more general and they are not connected with death any more. Most of them (six) have a negative meaning, three are positively loaded and one is neutral. Tongue idioms Tongue is the organ in your mouth. It is a long piece of flesh fixed to the bottom of human’s or animal’s mouth. People use it for tasting and speaking. Tongue, mostly is use to talk but it also stands for a style of expression, a particular way of speaking and writing. Almost all tongue idioms have a negative meaning, which is surprising. It is the first body part which is so negatively loaded. None of idioms have a clear positive meaning. Only one is neutral: have something on the tip of one’s tongue. Other body parts idioms Head idioms Head is the top part of human’s or animal’s body that has brain, eyes, mouth and nose. Head can also stand for mind and thought. It is often connected with reason, thoughts or memories. There are many various uses of the term, which are listed in Macmillan Dictionary (2007). Six head idioms have a positive meaning and four of them are negatively loaded. Head provides an essential source domain for characterizing people human states and behavior. The implicit meanings of head-based idioms are predominantly negative. This being the case, someone’s head getting big – which is equivalent to the English swollen-headed – is used rhetorically as a metonymy to stand for someone who is arrogant, whereas someone with a big head refers metonymically to any knowledgeable person (scientist, engineer or professor) who is most appreciated by others, or to any person in power (minister, prime minister, or university president) who has mastery over issues others do not. Someone with a heavy head, which is equivalent to the English sleepy head, symbolizes a person who is less likely to wake up early and almost misses the clock alarm. Other idioms which also implicate negative meanings include someone’s got dry or solid head, which is a metonymy for the attribute of stubbornness and which is parallel to the English hard-headed, and someone’s head and pillow, which symbolizes loneliness (unmarried or friendless person) and metonymically stands for anybody who need not look after anyone except him/herself. When someone constructed roads in my head – which is equivalent to the English drilling a hole in someone’s head – is said by someone, then the speaker is complaining that he/she is tormented by someone pertinacious, one who is persistently nagging and over-enquiring about something in a very unpleasant manner. Face idioms The conventional pragmatic implications of the idioms could also be either positive or negative. Instances of metonymic face-based idioms of negative implications which are of frequent use include someone has been eating my face, someone should not be given face, someone with a bloodless face, someone slept on his/her face = someone slept on belly, and someone’s face stops the livelihood. Someone has been eating my face is a metonymic expression used to stand for someone who relentlessly asks about something and insists on his request. This idiom is also used to stand for creditors who insist on their request and seek to recover debt from debtors. Someone should not be given face is also a metonymy for a meddling person and this idiom is used as advice not to establish a relationship with any such type of people. There are some people who are intrusive overbearing in a very intolerable way, and if someone shows them a good welcome and smile in their faces once, they are encouraged to come back and hope to get more and more, and ask someone at every opportunity to give them what they want. If someone forgives and disregards an intrusive person’s mistakes, then the apologizer might go too far and keep insulting and hurting the apologize unless the apologizer is stopped from doing so. Further, there are some disturbing people who overstay their welcomes, in that if respected and welcomed in someone’s home or workplace, they come to visit someone every day in order for the host to undertake the duty of hospitality. For all these possible reasons, some people might use the metonymical idiom of someone should not be given face. Someone with a bloodless face is a metonymic expression that symbolizes rude and shameless people who are likely to speak in a way that may be hurtful and offensive to others; people who do not care whether they are right or not due to over brazenness and lack of modesty and understanding. The metonymical idiom of someone slept on his/her face is normally used to describe someone who slept worried or slept because of the severity of fatigue. Finally, the expression someone’s face stops the livelihood is used to describe pessimistic people who are likely to get someone down. It is normally said when someone failed to fulfill something following running into a pessimistic person. Metonymical face-based idioms of positive implications are relatively few and they include you can see your face in it and your face and not the moonlight. The former is used as a metonymy to signify anything tremendously clean such as car, door, floor, etc. It is so clean that one can see one’s face in it as if it were a mirror. The latter is said while addressing the beloved person and used to express the longing and welcome to the beloved person after a long absence. Also, someone with white face is a metonymy for a peaceful person who is innocent of some charges blamed on him/her accidently. Back idioms Back is the body part that is opposite side to people’s chest, it is between the neck and the top of legs. Half of back idioms are positive and the other half has a negative meaning. 2. Calculation Idioms are one of the most difficult parts of the vocabulary of any language because they have unpredictable meanings or collocations and grammar. One of the main difficulties for learners is deciding in which situation it is correct to use an idiom, i.e. the level of style (neutral, informal, slang, taboo, etc. idioms). Learners of English may also have difficulty deciding whether an idiom is natural or appropriate in a certain situation. It is extremely unwise to translate idioms into or from one’s native language. One may be lucky that the two languages have the same form and vocabulary, but in most cases the result will be utterly bewildering to the English native speaker – and possibly highly amusing. (Seidl 1988) Today’s English has a general tendency towards a more idiomatic usage. Even educated usage has become more tolerant, so the use of idiomatic expressions increased in frequency. Idioms are, in a very broad sense, metaphorical rather than literal: they are effectively metaphors that have become ‘fixed’ in language. In some cases, it is fairly easy to see how the idiomatic meaning relates to the literal meaning, in other cases, the literal meaning may make no sense at all. The primary goal of this study was to investigate the positive and negative pragmatic implications of body-based idioms that are enhanced by metonymy. It was found that metonymical idioms that include lexis for head, face, eye, hand, tongue, and leg predominantly implicate negative meanings. Also, whereas metonymy-enhanced idioms that include body parts such as hair, nose, tongue, teeth, back, skin and blood were found to be expressing positive and negative meanings almost equally, metonymical idioms that are based on mouth and neck were found to be conveying positive meaning only. It might be possible to argue that the use of the majority of body-based idioms is enhanced by the need to be polite. Having said that, we could say that the use to which these idioms are established and maintained is to protect the speaker’s and/or the addressee’s face. Idioms in general and those examined in this study in particular are all examples of indirect communication of opinions, human states and behaviour. Almost every body idiom is related to human being, to its behaviour, qualities and everyday life. Understanding of the metaphorical meaning of idiomatic phrases is related to everyday experience and the world around us. It causes that metaphors are very important in people’s lives. This is whyone should know idioms especially when he is learning language. Metaphors are part of the language. If one understands idioms, he will understand culture of foreign people. 3. Some Examples All ears If you are all ears, you are very interested and ready to listen to what another person wants to tell you. Tell me what happened – I’m all ears. All in your head If something is all in your head, you have imagined it and it is not real. Stop thinking that everybody hates you. It’s all in your head. Cost somebody an arm and a leg If something costs an arm and a leg, it is very expensive. This television set cost me an arm and leg. It wasn’t cheap at all. Armed to the teeth A person who is armed to the teeth is using or carrying a lot of weapons. The enemy soldiers were armed to the teeth. It was impossible to defeat them. At each other’s throats If two people are at each other’s throats, they are arguing in an angry way. It looks like they are at each other’s throatsagain. They just can’t agree on anything. Have the guts If you have the guts to do something, you are brave enough to do it. He has the guts to express his opinions in public. Hit a nerve If you hit a nerve, you upset someone by talking about an uncomfortable topic. I think you really hit a nerve when you mentioned her divorce. Pain in the neck If someone or something is a pain in the neck, he/she/it is very annoying. Angela is a real pain in the neck. She annoys just about everyone she meets. Pick someone’s brains If you pick someone’s brains, you ask the person for advice, suggestions and information. I need some ideas. Can I pick your brains? Play it by ear If you play something by ear, you deal with a situation as it develops rather than according to any plan. We don’t have a plan. We’ll just have to play it by ear. Pull someone’s leg If you pull someone’s leg, you make someone believe something that is not true, usually as a joke. Don’t take her seriously. She’s just pulling your leg. Put your foot down If you put your foot down, you stop something from happening by using your authority. She was out of control but her parents finally decided to put their foot down. 4. References 1. Courtney, R., Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, Essex England: Longman Group UK Ltd, 1994; 2. Gibbs, Raymond W. (1994): The Poetics of Mind: Figurative Thought, Language, and Under-standing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3. Gibbs, Raymond W. & Berg, E. (1999): Embodied metaphor and perceptual symbols. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22, 4. Gibbs, Raymond W., Lima, Paula & Francuzo, Edson (2004): Metaphor is grounded in embodied experience. Journal of Pragmatics 36, 5. Gibbs, Raymond W. & Wilson, Nicole L. (2002): Bodily Action and Metaphorical Meaning. 6. Goossens, Louis (1990): Metaphtonymy: The interaction of metaphor and metonymy in 7. expressions for linguistic action. Cognitive Linguistics1, 8. Halliday, Michael A.K. (1985): An Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold. 9. Hansen, Gyde (2005): Experience and Emotion in Empirical Translation Research with 10. Think-Aloud and Retrospection. Meta 50, 11. Flavell, L. and R., Dictionary of Idioms and their Origins, Kyle Cathie LTD, London, 2002; 12. Manser, M., Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins, London: Sphere Books Ltd., 1990; 13. Rogers, J., The Dictionary of Clichà ©s, New Jersey: Wings Books, 1994; 14. Seidl, J., English Idioms, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988; 15. Warren, H., Oxford Learner’s Dictionary of English Idioms, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994; 16. ***, The COBUILD Dictionary of Idioms, London, Harper Collins Publishers, 1995 17. ***, The Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, Longman Group UK Ltd., 1979; 18. ***, The Oxford Dictionary of Idioms, New York, Oxford University Press Inc., 1999; 19. ***, The Penguin Dictionary of English Idioms, Penguin Books Ltd., 1994; 20. ***, The Wordsworth Dictionary of Idioms, Ware: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1993; 21. ***, The Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase & Fable, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Ltd., 1993.

The Way Food Plays Roles in Our Lives

The role food plays in our social lives There are many roles in which food could play in our social lives. Food can unite people for special events and occasions, such as holidays and get together. Public restaurants can also play a role in our daily lives and I would compare them. To start, food can unite people in special occasions. Thanksgiving is a great holiday in which food is a big part of. In Thanksgiving everyone from each house hold brings a dish to the house where it is being held.Then, once every dish has arrived, it is time to eat together in each other’s company to give thanks and blessings, most of the time for being able to have the food that they have in their table. Another great holiday where food can unite people is Christmas. Food plays a big role in Christmas, besides receiving gifts; it unites the family for one big dinner. For example, in my family we cook a pig all day long and at night when it’s cooked the family gather together for the big mea l of the night.Usually, during our meal we converse about things going on in our lives while eating all the different dishes the women in our family specialize in. Food can help comfort and unite people together in holidays and special events. Then come public restaurants that all pass by on our rides to work or school. One of the public restaurants is McDonalds. McDonalds is a fast food chain that is not good for you one bit but the thing that makes people coming back is the prices and speed the food comes out.The reason McDonalds is not good for you is the way they get there meat and chicken from unhealthy ways. For example, they give the chicken chemicals so they could get bigger than normal, which give then more chicken. Another public restaurant is outback steak house. Outback is a great restaurant and a favorite of many people due to their great quality of food and service. There steaks are a great quality of meat and it is always cooked to perfection. Their service is always great whenever I go.People also enjoy the Australian feel to the restaurant which makes it unique to other restaurants. Another public restaurant is Dunkin Donuts where they can start your day off with whatever you desire. Their coffee is pretty good when it comes to other restaurants. Another great thing about Dunkin Donuts is the bagels and donuts. They have a variety of different flavored bagels and donuts so you will never be disappointed when you go to choose one. Then when it comes to both private and public places there are many similarities and differences.One of the similarities is that you get to spend time eating with your family. Sitting down and eating makes you enjoy time with your family and talk about each other’s lives. For example, when I eat at a public or private place I eat with my family and talk about things in our lives. Another similarity is that you are feeding your body because without food you would not live in this world. It also has many differen ces like you cook your own food at family dinners and not at restaurants.Some people love to put their own seasoning on their meat instead of the restaurants seasoning. Another difference that the food at home is healthier then the fast food place like McDonalds because in reality anything is healthier then fast food chains. There also just a more of a family feel to the dinner when it’s in a private place like at a family holiday party. In conclusion, you have your private occasions where you eat in a family setting ad there is a public setting when it’s more open. They are both different and similar in many ways.

Predicted National Merit Scholarship Cutoffs for 2018 and 2019 (Updated)

Predicted National Merit Scholarship Cutoffs for 2018 and 2019 (Updated) SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips What score do you need on the PSAT to qualify for National Merit distinction? The answer to this question depends on where you live. To achieve National Merit recognition, you need to match or exceed the cutoff score in your home state. We’ve compiledtheNational Merit Semifinalist state cutoffs based on the most recent data from the fall of 2017.Before checking out the qualifying scores, let’s discuss how the National Merit Scholarship Corporation (NMSC) determines who is named Commended Student orSemifinalist. Howto Qualify for National Merit National Merit is open to U.S. citizens who test in the U.S. in the fall of 11th grade. Only your junior year PSAT counts toward National Merit distinction and scholarships, though taking the PSAT as a sophomore or freshman can be good practice, especially if you’re aiming for top scores. Students who achieve top scores may receive recognition from the National Merit Scholarship Corporation. NMSC compares your PSAT scores with those of other students in your state using its own Selection Index, which falls on a scale between 48 and 228. The top 3-4% of scorers arenamed Commended Scholar. The top 1%, usually about 16,000 students, are named National Merit Semifinalists. Semifinalists may go on to apply for Finalist status and potentially win scholarship money. As I mentioned above, NMSC uses its own Selection Index along with state percentiles. Let’s take a look at how your scores convert to this index. Just how many differentscoring scales are actually onthe PSAT? Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Understanding Your Scores on the PSAT To understand your National Merit eligibility, you mainly need to pay attention to your PSAT section scores for Math, Reading, and Writing and Language. Each section isscored between 8 and 38. NMSCadds each section score together and then multiplies by 2. Let’s say you got a 30 on Math, a 31 on Reading, and a 32 on Writing and Language. Added together, the sum of these scores comes out to 93. Multiply by 2, and you get your National Merit Selection Index Score: 186. Asan equation, this would look like: (30 + 31 + 32) x2 = 186. Based on our estimates for the qualifying PSAT scores, a score of 186 wouldn’t make it into the top 1%. Check out the cutoff scoresbelow. Does your PSAT score report look like a jumble of numbers? For National Merit, you just need to understand one: your Selection Index. Predicted National Merit ScholarshipCutoffs The cutoffs in the chart below apply to students who took the PSAT in October 2017.While the National Merit Scholarship Corporation hasn't released the exact state-by-state cutoffs it used, we have been able to crowdsource this information from individuals around the country. If you see any state cutoffs that look off, let us know in the comments! Here's the full list of Selection Index scores that qualified for National Merit Semifinalist. State Selection Index Alabama 216 Alaska 215 Arizona 220 Arkansas 214 California 223 Colorado 221 Connecticut 222 Delaware 222 DC 223 Florida 219 Georgia 220 Hawaii 220 Idaho 214 Illinois 221 Indiana 219 Iowa 216 Kansas 218 Kentucky 218 Louisiana 217 Maine 217 Maryland 223 Massachusetts 223 Michigan 219 Minnesota 220 Mississippi 215 Missouri 217 Montana 214 Nebraska 216 Nevada 218 New Hampshire 219 New Jersey 223 New Mexico 215 New York 221 North Carolina 220 North Dakota 212 Ohio 219 Oklahoma 215 Oregon 221 Pennsylvania 220 Rhode Island 220 South Carolina 216 South Dakota 215 Tennessee 219 Texas 221 Utah 215 Vermont 216 Virginia 222 Washington 222 West Virginia 212 Wisconsin 216 Wyoming 212 Average Score 218 If you tested in California, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, or Washington, DC, then the bar was especially high. You had to score at or above a 223. North Dakota, West Virginia, and Wyoming had the lowest cutoffs at 212. The average cutoff for all states was 218. If you haven't taken the PSAT yet and are aiming for National Merit, you should aim to get a Selection Index score 2-5 points higher than the cutoff score for your state. The reason you should aim a little higher is that qualifying scores can fluctuate a little from year to year. Aiming for a National Merit Scholarship but worried your score won't qualify? If you're not sure you can self-study your way to a qualifying PSAT score, you'll love our PSAT prep program, PrepScholar. We designed our program to learn your strengths and weaknesses through advanced statistics and customize your prep to be as effective as possible for you. When you start with PrepScholar, you’ll take a diagnostic that will determine your weaknesses in over forty PSAT skills. PrepScholar then creates a study program specifically customized for you. To improve each skill, you’ll take focused lessons dedicated to each skill, with over 20 practice questions per skill. This will train you for your specific area weaknesses, so your time is always spent most effectively to raise your score. We also force you to focus on understanding your mistakes and learning from them. If you make the same mistake over and over again, we'll call you out on it. There’s no other prep system out there that does it this way, which is why we get better score results than any other program on the market. Check it out today with a 5-day free trial: Based on these cutoffs, how can you figure out what section scores you need on the PSATto qualify for National Merit? Let's talk goals. What Should You Score on Each PSAT Section? As discussed above, NMSC's Selection Index adds your three section scores together and doubles them. In order to figure out what you need for each section, simply work backward. Divide your state's qualifying score by 2, and then split that up by 3 (or however you want based on your target scores for each section). Let's consider the average qualifying score of 218. If you have a selection score of 218, then your section scores add up to 109. To get this sum, you couldscore around 36-37 on each section (Math, Reading, and Writing and Language). If you're much stronger in maththan in writing, then you could aim for a perfect 38 on Math and a little lower on Writing and Language. Overall, you need to get a sectionscore in the 30s for each section on the PSAT to compete for National Merit. Again, aim for a few points higher than the minimum, as cutoffs can vary somewhat from year to year. If your goal is to be named National Merit Semifinalist, then you'll want to put in some effort towardprepping for the PSAT.Below you'll find links to useful resources, such as official PSAT practice tests and sample questions. You'll need to crackthe books to geta purrfect score. How to Prep for the PSAT The best way to prepare for the PSAT is to familiarize yourself with official practice questions and self-timed PSAT practice tests. Score your attempts, figure out your strengths and weaknesses, and design a study plan that targets your weak areas. Depending on where you’re starting out, you might want to put in 40 hours of prep or more. You should familiarize yourself with the test content to review key concepts and get used to the tricky wording of the PSAT/NMSQT. At the same time, you can try out different strategies for answering questions efficiently, like recognizing answer types and using the process of elimination. One essentialpart of studying is reviewing and analyzing your mistakes. Rather than taking a practice test and moving right on to the next, you should take the time to deconstruct your errors piece by piece. Did you misunderstand the question, lack content knowledge, or make a careless mistake? By understanding the root of your mistake, you can figure out what you need to fix for next time. All of your prep might not only pay off with National Merit distinction and scholarships, but it should also help you achieve excellent scores on the SAT! What’s Next? If you achieve amazing PSAT scores and are named Semifinalist, how do you go on to win the scholarship? This guide talks about the application process for moving from National Merit Semifinalist to National Merit Finalist and scholarship winner. If you're scoring highly on the PSAT, then you might be in a good position to get a perfect score on the SAT. FYI, you don't have to be a genius to get a 1600 - full scores are all about how much and how well you prep! Check out this guide to getting a perfect score on the SAT, written by a perfectscorer. Disappointed with your scores? Want to improve your SAT score by 160points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Capital Crimes and Executives

Capital Crimes and Executives Free Online Research Papers Capital Punishment Many distinctive doctrines in criminal law originated in efforts to restrict the number of capital crimes and executions. For instance, in the late 18th century, when all murder in the United States was punishable by death, Pennsylvania pioneered in dividing murder into two categories. The state enacted laws that authorized punishment of first-degree murder by death, while second-degree murder was punishable by imprisonment only. Elsewhere, penal codes uniformly required death for certain serious crimes. In these jurisdictions, discretionary powers to commute death sentences gradually expanded. (A commutation substitutes a lesser penalty for a more severe one- for example, replacing execution with a life sentence.) Today in many nations, including Turkey and Japan, the death penalty remains legal but the number of executions has declined over time. Although many jurisdictions limited imposition of the death penalty, no government had formally abolished capital punishment until Michigan did so in 1846. Within 20 years Venezuela (1863) and Portugal (1867) had formally eliminated the practice as well. By the beginning of the 20th century the death sentence had been abolished in a handful of nations, such as Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Norway, and The Netherlands. Although not formally eliminated, it had fallen into disuse in many others, including Brazil, Cape Verde, Iceland, Monaco, and Panama. The defeat of the Axis powers provided a foundation for the elimination of the death penalty in Western Europe. Some of the nations involved in the war saw abolition of capital punishment as a way to disassociate themselves from the atrocities that had taken place. Italy formally abolished the death penalty in 1947 and the Federal Republic of Germany did so in 1949. The British government instituted a Royal Commission to study capital punishment in 1950 and abolished the death penalty in 1965. (Northern Ireland did not abolish capital punishment until 1973.) By the early 1980s every major country in Europe had stopped executing criminals. Coincident with this trend in Western Europe, many countries belonging to the Commonwealth of Nations, an association of countries formerly affiliated with the British Empire, eliminated capital punishment. For instance, Canada conducted its last execution in 1962 and abolished the death penalty in 1976. New Zealand held its last execution in 1957 and Australia stopped executing criminals ten years later. A similar burst of abolitionist activity coincided with the breakup of the Soviet Union. East Germany, the Czech Republic, and Romania all outlawed capital punishment between 1987 and 1990. Throughout the former Communist countries, abolition of the death penalty was a political act far removed from the usual domain of criminal justice policy-making. Eliminating the death penalty was one of many ways the citizens of these countries rejected unlimited state power over individual life. For example, in Romania the overthrow of dictator Nicolae Ceausescu was followed by his execution an d that of members of his family. Shortly thereafter, the new government abolished capital punishment, which was associated with Ceausescu’s brutal, tyrannical rule. Critics of capital punishment contend that it is brutal and degrading, while supporters consider it a necessary form of retribution (revenge) for terrible crimes. Those who advocate the death penalty assert that it is a uniquely effective punishment that deters crime. However, advocates and opponents of the death penalty dispute the proper interpretation of statistical analyses of its deterrent effect. Opponents of capital punishment see the death penalty as a human rights issue involving the proper limits of governmental power. In contrast, those who want governments to continue to execute tend to regard capital punishment as an issue of criminal justice policy. Because of these alternative viewpoints, there is a profound difference of opinion not only about what is the right answer on capital punishment, but about what type of question is being asked when the death penalty becomes a public issue. Execution by Guillotine During the French Revolution (1789-1799), King Louis XVI of France was tried as a traitor and condemned to death. His execution by guillotine, which took place in a crowded plaza in Paris, was a public spectacle. Early opponents of the death penalty opposed such brutal methods of criminal punishment.Corbis Early opponents of capital punishment objected to its brutality. Executions were public spectacles involving cruel methods. In addition, capital punishment was not reserved solely for the most serious crimes. Death was the penalty for a variety of minor offenses. The allegations of brutality inspired two different responses by those who supported executions. First, advocates contended that capital punishment was necessary for the safety of other citizens and therefore not gratuitous. Second, death penalty supporters sought to remove some of the most visibly gruesome aspects of execution. Executions that had been open to the public were relocated behind closed doors. Later, governments replaced traditional methods of causing death- such as hanging- with what were regarded as more modern methods, such as electrocution and poison gas. Lethal injection is now the preferred method of execution in the majority of U.S. states. The search for less brutal means of inflicting death continues to recent times. In 1977 Oklahoma became the first U.S. state to authorize execution by lethal injection- the administration of fatal amounts of fast-acting drugs and chemicals. Lethal injection is now the preferred method of execution in the majority of U.S. states. However, modern opponents of capital punishment contend that sterilized and depersonalized methods of execution do not eliminate the brutality of the penalty. In the debate about execution and human dignity, supporters and opponents of the death penalty have found very little common ground. Opponents of capital punishment assert that it is degrading to the humanity of the person punished. Since the 18th century, those who wish to abolish the death penalty have stressed the significance of requiring governments to recognize the importance of each individual. However, supporters of capital punishment see nothing wrong with governments deliberately killing terrible people who commit terrible crimes. Therefore, they see no need to limit governmental power in this area. Early opponents of capital punishment also argued that inflicting death was not necessary to control crime and properly punish wrongdoers. Instead, alternative punishment- such as imprisonment- could effectively isolate criminals from the community, deter other potential offenders from committing offenses, and express the communitys condemnation of those who break its laws. In his Essay on Crimes and Punishments, Beccaria asserted that the certainty of punishment, rather than its severity, was a more effective deterrent. Supporters of capital punishment countered that the ultimate penalty of death was necessary for the punishment of terrible crimes because it provided the most complete retribution and condemnation. Furthermore, they argued that the threat of execution was a unique deterrent. Death penalty supporters contended that capital punishment self-evidently prevents more crime because death is so much more feared than mere restrictions on one’s liberty. Supporters and opponents of capital punishment still debate its effectiveness. Social scientists have collected statistical data on trends in homicide before and after jurisdictions have abolished capital punishment. They have also compared homicide rates in places with and without the death penalty. The great majority of these statistical comparisons indicate that the presence or absence of capital punishment or executions does not visibly influence the rate of homicide. Opponents of capital punishment maintain that these studies refute the argument that the death penalty deters crime. Many capital punishment opponents consider the deterrence argument fully negated and no longer part of the debate. However, supporters of the death penalty dispute that interpretation of the statistical analyses of deterrent effect. Capital punishment advocates note that because the death penalty is reserved for the most aggravated murders, the deterrent effect of capital punishment on such crimes may not be apparent in data on homicide rates in general. Supporters also urge that the conflicting results of various studies indicate that the deterrent effect of the death penalty cannot not be proven or disproven with any certainty. They maintain that in the absence of conclusive proof that the threat of execution might not save some people from being killed, capital punishment should be retained. A unique facet of the modern debate about capital punishment is the characterization of the death penalty as a human rights issue, rather than a debate about the proper punishment of criminals. Modern opposition to the death penalty is seen as a reaction to the political history of the 20th century, most notably the Holocaust- the systematic mass killing of Jews and others during World War II (1939-1945). All the major nations in Western Europe utilized capital punishment prior to World War II. After the defeat of the National Socialist (Nazi) and Fascist governments of Germany and Italy, those two nations became the first major powers in Europe to abolish capital punishment. The postwar movement to end capital punishment, beginning in Italy and Germany and then spreading, represented a reaction to totalitarian forms of government that systematically violated the rights of the individual. The human rights focus on the death penalty has continued, especially in settings of dramatic political change. When people view capital punishment as a human rights issue, countries that are becoming more democratic have been eager to abolish the death penalty, which they associate with the former regime and its abuses of power. For example, a number of former Communist nations abolished capital punishment shortly after the dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1991. Similarly, the multiracial government of South Africa formed in 1994 quickly outlawed a death penalty many associated with apartheid, the official policy of racial segregation that had been in place since the late 1940s. Research Papers on Capital Crimes and ExecutivesAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Bringing Democracy to AfricaThe Fifth HorsemanThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseDefinition of Export QuotasQuebec and CanadaComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in Capital